Who Belongs on the Frontier: Cherokee Removal

The Cherokee are an Indigenous tribe that traditionally lived in the American Southeast before their forced relocation to the Oklahoma territory in the 1830s. From the earliest interactions between the Cherokee and European settlers, there were tensions between the two groups. Cherokees were eager trading partners with Europeans and Americans, and an intense cultural exchange radically altered the Cherokee way of life between the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.  

Eventually, the practices and customs the Cherokee adopted led Euro-Americans to consider them one of the Five Civilized Tribes—a distinction that was meant to convey that these tribes had integrated Western European ideas and practices into their societies. It is important to note that, despite being intended as a compliment at the time, the use of the term "civilized" in this context is problematic today, in part because of the inherent value judgement but also because one of the “civilized” practices Euro-Americans were applauding was the enslavement of Africans by some Native tribes. Euro-Americans also commended the creation of a written Cherokee language, the adoption of a European style government, and changes to traditional Cherokee farming techniques and homesteading practices, including building log cabin homes and growing cash crops like cotton. 

While this cultural fusion earned the Cherokee the respect of many Euro-American settlers, it did not guarantee their rights to their ancestral homelands. Jealousy over the Cherokee's fertile farmland combined with racial prejudices led many Americans to believe that the Cherokee should make way for the growth of the United States and white settlers. As the population of the U.S. began to grow following the Revolutionary War, many Americans in the Southeast began agitating for the removal of the Cherokee. The discovery of gold in North Georgia brought thousands of Americans into Cherokee Territory, and many prominent politicians advocated for the end of negotiations with tribal governments. In 1828 Andrew Jackson, one of the loudest of these advocates, was elected to presidency. Upon assuming office, he declared that one of his first objectives was the removal of all tribes living to the East of the Mississippi River.   

NCSS.D2.His.1.6-8. Analyze connections among events and developments in broader historical contexts.  

NCSS.D2.His.2.6-8. Classify series of historical events and developments as examples of change and/or continuity. 

NCSS.D2.His.3.6-8. Use questions generated about individuals and groups to analyze why they, and the developments they shaped, are seen as historically significant. 

NCSS.D2.His.4.6-8. Analyze multiple factors that influenced the perspectives of people during different historical eras. 

D2.His.6.6-8. Analyze how people’s perspectives influenced what information is available in the historical sources they created. 

D2.Civ.3.6-8. Examine the origins, purposes, and impact of constitutions, laws, treaties, and international agreements. 

D2.Civ.4.6-8. Explain the powers and limits of the three branches of government, public officials, and bureaucracies at different levels in the United States and in other countries 

D2.Civ.5.6-8. Explain the origins, functions, and structure of government with reference to the U.S. Constitution, state constitutions, and selected other systems of government 

D2.Civ.8.6-8. Analyze ideas and principles contained in the founding documents of the United States, and explain how they influence the social and political system. 

D2.Civ.10.6-8. Explain the relevance of personal interests and perspectives, civic virtues, and democratic 
principles when people address issues and problems in government and civil society 

D2.Civ.13.6-8. Analyze the purposes, implementation, and consequences of public policies in multiple settings 

D2.Civ.14.6-8. Compare historical and contemporary means of changing societies, and promoting the common good 

D2.His.1.9-12. Evaluate how historical events and developments were shaped by unique circumstances of time and place as well as broader historical contexts. 

D2.His.2.9-12. Analyze change and continuity in historical eras. 

D2.His.3.9-12. Use questions generated about individuals and groups to assess how the significance of their actions changes over time and is shaped by the historical context.  

D2.His.7.9-12. Explain how the perspectives of people in the present shape interpretations of the past. 

D2.His.8.9-12. Analyze how current interpretations of the past are limited by the extent to which available historical sources represent perspectives of people at the time. 

D2.His.14.9-12. Analyze multiple and complex causes and effects of events in the past. 

D2.Civ.1.9-12. Distinguish the powers and responsibilities of local, state, tribal, national, and international civic and political institutions 

D2.Civ.3.9-12. Analyze the impact of constitutions, laws, treaties, and international agreements on the 
maintenance of national and international order. 

D2.Civ.4.9-12. Explain how the U.S. Constitution establishes a system of government that has powers, responsibilities, and limits that have changed over time and that are still contested. 

D2.Civ.10.9-12. Analyze the impact and the appropriate roles of personal interests and perspectives on the application of civic virtues, democratic principles, constitutional rights, and human rights. 

D2.Civ.12.9-12. Analyze how people use and challenge local, state, national, and international laws to address a variety of public issues. 

D2.Civ.13.9-12. Evaluate public policies in terms of intended and unintended outcomes, and related 
consequences. 

D2.Civ.14.9-12. Analyze historical, contemporary, and emerging means of changing societies, promoting the common good, and protecting rights. 

This lesson plan introduces students to the causes and consequences of the forced removal of the Cherokee from their traditional homeland to the Oklahoma territory by the United States Army. Students will benefit from having a broad background understanding of the relationship between Euro-American settlers and Indigenous Americans, as well as understanding the geography of removal, which is illustrated here. More information about the relationships between tribes and settlers can be found in EDSITEment’s American Indian History and Heritage teacher’s guide. Our lesson plan Native Americans and the Revolutionary War: Choosing Sides may be of particular interest.  

As an entry point to this topic, encourage students to think about place and belonging. You might ask them to share their thoughts in small groups or whole class discussion or write them down for later reflection. You might repeat the same discussion after the lesson to highlight any changes in their thinking. You can use the following questions to help start student inquiry: 

• What does home mean? Is it a specific location? 

• Who has the right to tell other people what to do? 

• Why do the Cherokee live in Oklahoma today? 

• How and why did the United States expand from the original colonies? 

Activity 1: Mapping Removal 

Examine this 1884 map of lands surrendered by the Cherokee, paying special attention to the dates when these lands were ceded to the United States.   

• What does this map tell you about the Cherokee's relationship with European settlers and alter the government of the United States?   

• Why do you think the Cherokee would have moved from this land? 

• What decisions did Cherokees face when Euro-Americans settled in their region? What factors do you think influenced these decisions?    

• Notice that the last region of Cherokee land changed hands in 1835. What do you think happened after that?   

Activity 2: Write and Wrong

Many people wrote down what they thought or felt about Cherokee removal during this time. Compare the views in this 1835 letter from President Andrew Jackson to the Cherokee People with this 1836 letter from Cherokee Chief John Ross to Congress. Consider the following:  

• What did each person hope to accomplish with their letter?   

• Why might Andrew Jackson have wanted to convince the Cherokee to move voluntarily?   

• How do you think Cherokee people might have responded to Jackson's letter? Would they have found the appeal persuasive? 

Activity 3: Adapting to a Changing World 

Even before removal, Cherokee culture was drastically changed by contact with Europeans and Americans. Think about what technological, political, social, and environmental changes Cherokee people adopted after contact. 

• Read Article I of the Cherokee Constitution. What can this document tell you about what was going on with the Cherokee at this time? Why do you think the Cherokee chose to write a constitution in 1827? The full Cherokee Constitution can be read here. Compare this to Article VI, Section 3 of the US Constitution, which covers the ways new states and territories can be added to the Union. How are these two articles similar? How are they different? Why would the Cherokee feel the need to create such strong laws about their territory, and why would the United States create laws to govern how new territory was added to the country? 

• The Cherokee Constitution was printed in the first edition of the Cherokee Phoenix. The Cherokee Phoenix was the first printed Native American newspaper, and was an important tool for keeping the citizens of the Cherokee nation informed and unified. Why do you think they would want to print this kind of document in a newspaper? What was significant about the Cherokee Phoenix? Students may enjoy listening to this sound clip of Tom Belt, a Cherokee Language Program Instructor, talking about the creation of the Cherokee Phoenix in Cherokee. 

• What other changes do you think Cherokees had to make when they got to the Oklahoma Territory? Compare the environment of North Georgia where the Cherokee came from to the environment of Northeast Oklahoma where they were removed to.   

Activity 4: In Their Own Words

Each of the Cherokees who went through removal had their own unique experiences and responses to what was going on around them. Although we don't know exactly how all of them felt, many of their stories have been preserved through oral histories which were recorded in the 1930s. Have students read the two interviews with Cornelia C. Chandler and Mary Daniels. Cornelia's interview talks about the specific experiences of removal as well as how the Cherokee made a new life for themselves in Oklahoma. Mary's interview recounts the life of her father Wolfe, who made the journey on the Trail of Tears before becoming involved in politics in the Cherokee's new homeland. Ask students to reflect on how these accounts support or challenge their ideas about the experience of removal. Use the following questions to guide their inquiry if needed. 

• Was there anything in these interviews about removal or resettling that you found surprising? Why?
• Was there anything you expected to find in these interviews that wasn't present? Why might it be missing?
• Why are oral histories like these valuable sources for researchers? How does reading these help us understand the events of Removal?

Other interview transcripts can be found through the University of Oklahoma Libraries. Invite students to explore the interviews in this collection for one they find particularly interesting and share it with the class. 

By the end of the lesson, students should be able to answer the following questions: 

• Who were the Cherokee? Why were they forced to leave their homeland and where did they go? Where are they now? 

• Describe the experience on the Trail of Tears. How were the stories of the Cherokee passed down through multiple generations? 

Students can demonstrate their understanding of this topic by writing a letter in response to Andrew Jackson. How would they respond to someone arguing in favor of removal? Consider how a response at the time of the events might differ from a response written to someone who is justifying the decision today. 

To extend this lesson, invite students research how Cherokee removal is memorialized today. Are there events, locations, or historic landmarks that interpret these events? Have each student present on one modern type of memorialization and why they chose it. Use the following questions to help guide exploration.

• What do these memorials have in common?
• What message do they send?
• Are they made by Cherokee or other Americans?

To get students thinking outside the box, you can use these articles from the Cherokee Phoenix to show a memorial event rather than a statue or other physical object. 

Consider what characteristics make a good/effective removal memorial and use these criteria to design one of your own.