Primary and Secondary Sources: Foundations of Historical Research

A familiarity with the historical research method sparks curiosity in students and teaches them to be critical clickers as they combat misinformation on the Internet.    

The Historical Method in Three Phases 

Historians are scrupulous researchers and detailed investigators. Traditionally, historians employ what is called the historical method in three general phases.  

First, historians scour physical and digital archives in search of sources like diary entries, artifacts of clothing, first-hand interviews, or fugitive slave advertisements to obtain a solid idea of what the past was really like. These are primary sources: contemporary accounts created by people who were present or intimately involved in historical events.  

In the second phase of the historical method, historians critically read scholarly articles and books to stay up to date on how their peers have interpreted the same subject. Books and articles are two prime examples of secondary sources. They offer valuable context and fresh insight into historical events after those historical events have ended.  

Thirdly and finally, historians place it all in conversation with each other. The sources they discovered in the archive inform and are informed by the secondary source reading they have completed. The result is a more accurate and inclusive telling of the past.   

The Historical Method and the Digital World 

The same analytical habit of critically reading one’s sources can also be used by students to navigate the digital landscape—the ever evolving and full scope of information accessible through media, online, via applications and social media. Indeed, the historical method can be usefully translated by educators to help students become critical clickers. That is, students who are responsible online researchers and who are adept at distinguishing reliable information from misinformation.   

Many archives in the United States are free and publicly accessible, scholarly books are widely published, and an increasing amount of information is openly available online. But, ironically, because nearly anyone in the world can publish information on the Internet, the digital landscape can be a dangerous place to conduct historical research. With misinformation around every corner, how do historians navigate the digital landscape?  

“The very nature of information on the Internet requires a shift in the way we evaluate the credibility and worthiness of the information we encounter.”  

~ Christy Coleman, on Reframing History 

Unlike the materials one finds in the archive, the Internet is an unregulated space. Not every website found online is subject to a vetting process. So, in addition to critiquing the validity of a single document online, deciphering the veracity of online databases and repositories can be extremely tricky. But how studying historical research methods aid educators in helping students to alternate between critical reading and critical clicking? 

Some sites are clearly trustworthy. The National Archives and Records Administration or the Library of Congress are two great examples. Just as some digitally accessible academic and government organizations are certainly reliable: articles published in the American Historical Review and the Journal of African American History, or content from the National Park Service.   

But other websites and resources trigger more skepticism. And they must be questioned on a case-by-case basis. Some questions can be answered before the researcher even clicks on a link. Upon launching a question in a search engine, historians can begin to gauge the reliability of a website. What is the ending of the URL? Is it a “.com,” “.org,” “.gov,” or a “.edu” site? But sometimes these inquiries are too superficial to separate an unreliable website from a reliable one. In our current digital age, merely confirming the author of an article or the publisher of a website is not enough to combat misinformation.  

Just like with a physical primary source, the researcher must cross-examine the website. When faced with an unknown resource, online researchers (who are also critical clickers) investigate other websites to determine whether a source is reliable. This method is known as “lateral reading.” Similarly, historians of the Underground Railroad search for plantation records or correspondence to see how a fugitive slave advertisement fits into a history of freedom seeking. The practice of cross-examination is honed through the historical research method becomes invaluable in combatting online misinformation.  

Students are sure to find other examples of how the historical research method can aid in combatting online misinformation as they work their way through this lesson plan. Indeed, one of the main goals of this lesson plan is to foster a curiosity equipped with critical clicking.   

• D1.5.9-12. Determine the kinds of sources that will be helpful in answering compelling and supporting questions, taking into consideration multiple points of view represented in the sources, the types of sources available, and the potential uses of the sources. 

• D2.His.11.9-12. Critique the usefulness of historical sources for a specific historical inquiry based on their maker, date, place of origin, intended audience, and purpose. 

• D2.His.12.9-12. Use questions generated about multiple historical sources to pursue further inquiry and investigate additional sources. 

This lesson is designed to introduce students to primary source analysis. There are no prior concepts that students need to review before implementing this lesson plan.  

However, it may be useful for teachers to review the modeling key for activity three (below) and to read/listen to: “The Case of the Misunderstood Historical Method,” from Reframing History, produced by the American Association of State and Local History. 

Activity 1: Defining primary and secondary sources 

Begin by reading the Understanding Primary and Secondary Sources handout independently, in small groups, or with the entire class. This brief document uses engaging language to articulate the key differences between primary and secondary sources. It also poses some common questions that historians ask of primary and secondary sources in order to fully comprehend their value and context. A group discussion is encouraged.  

“Understanding Primary and Secondary Sources” ends with a prompt: If a historian in 2075 wanted to study classrooms in 2023, what objects around us would serve as excellent primary sources in their research? Answers may range, although some common responses might include: desks, chairs, pens, pencils, markers, projectors, lockers, worksheets, textbooks, and school uniforms. Educators then end by reiterating and emphasizing what primary sources add to an individual’s historical research. 

Activity 2: Identifying Primary Sources 

In groups of 3-4, students test their understanding of primary and secondary sources by completing the Matching Primary and Secondary Sources worksheet. In this exercise, they are tasked with correctly labeling 10 sources as either primary or secondary sources. Students will identify the specific information that helped them arrive at their answers. A key with explanations for each of the sources included in the lesson plan materials. After work time, review answers as a class and invite students to share their reasoning. 

Activity 3: Introduction to Primary Source Analysis 

The educator is supplied with two fugitive slave advertisements and is tasked with modeling for the entire class the critical thinking that goes into analyzing a primary source using a graphic organizer. The intellectual life for analyzing the first advertisement and filling in the graphic organizer should be on the educator. The educator should guide students through the second advertisement; however, students should supply the majority of the analysis. An exemplar graphic organizer with key words & phrases to model the thinking is supplied for the educator in the lesson plan materials.  

After the full-class discussion and analysis, students then transition to small groups to analyze different fugitive slave advertisements together. They will be given two to three fugitive slave advertisements observe and analyze, while also putting their thoughts into the graphic organizer. 

Prompt: You are explaining the Underground Railroad and the stories of freedom seekers to a friend. Choose three (3) primary and three (3) secondary sources from the lists below that you think would be most effective at explaining what it was. Write a three-paragraph response that explains your reasoning for choosing your primary and secondary sources.