Hawai'i's Annexation and Statehood: How the Island Nation Became an American Frontier

A brief note on the spelling of Hawai'i: Although the official name recorded on the 1959 Statehood Act  identifies the name of the state as "Hawaii," we have elected to use include the 'okina, the mark that resembles an apostrophe between the i's in Hawai'i, for consistency. The word Hawaiian does not have an 'okina. More information about the written Hawaiian language can be found here.

The Hawaiian Kingdom

The Hawaiian Kingdom was initially founded in 1795 when Kamehameha The Great of Hawai'i conquered and unified the islands of O'ahu, Maui, Moloka'i and Lana'i under his government. By 1810, the entire archipelago had been brought under the control of the Kamehameha Dynasty. At the same time, the island nation was gaining more and more international interest. British explorer James Cook was the first westerner to encounter the Polynesian islanders on January 18, 1778, and American and European traders quickly followed.   

Great Britain, the United States, Japan, and other globalizing nations began to take an interest in Hawai'i's natural exports, especially sugar. The islands' location in the mid-Pacific was also strategically valuable for traders and navies as a resupply port. White Christian missionaries from the United States came to the islands seeking to convert the native populations, and in 1848 a land distribution act allowed non-Hawaiians to purchase land in the nation for the first time. In the 1850's laborers from Asia were brought in to work on the sugar plantations as the Indigenous population drastically decreased due to exposure to diseases like smallpox, which Hawaiians had never encountered and had no natural resistance to. Wealthy Americans began investing in sugar in earnest after Hawai'i signed a Reciprocity Treaty with the United States in 1875, which allowed the import of sugar without a tariff for the first time.   

White Americans living on the islands became increasingly influential in the government of Hawai'i, with many serving as advisors to the monarchy and representatives in the legislature. The Reform Party, also known as the Missionary Party because many of them were descended from American missionaries, was an active political group that advocated for annexation by the United States. Although many of the members of the Reform Party were Hawaiian citizens, they resented the strict controls around foreigners purchasing land and the general power held by the Hawaiian crown. This movement petitioned the United States to annex Hawai'i several times beginning in the 1850's, but evolving interests in both the United States and Hawai'i had prevented any plans from coming to fruition.   

The Bayonet Constitution and Revolution

In 1887, two years after the new king David Kalākaua had signed the Reciprocity Treaty, a small but influential number of reform party members, supported by Hawaiian Minister of the Interior Lorrin Thurston and the Hawaiian militia coerced King Kalākaua to dismiss his cabinet and promulgate a new constitution on threat of assassination. The new constitution they forced the king to sign came to be known as the Bayonet Constitution, and was responsible for putting a great deal of power in the hands of the planter class at the expense of both native Hawaiians and immigrants from Asia.   

Following the Rebellion of 1887, King Kalākaua faced increasing criticism from all sides and other attempted rebellions. Many native Hawaiians believed he should abdicate in favor of his sister Princess Liliuokalani, and in 1889 a group of Hawaiians led by Robert Wilcox attempted to oust the king and install Liliuokalani on the throne. Although this rebellion was not successful, it likely caused concern among the members of the Missionary Party, who had previously offered the Princess the throne in the hopes that she would be even more amenable to their goals.   

Four years later, in 1891, King Kalākaua passed away and his sister ascended to the throne. One of her chief aims as monarch was to revoke the constitution of 1887 and reclaim the power that her brother had been forced to sign away, thus solidifying Hawaiian sovereignty. In 1893, she proposed a new constitution that would restore the monarchy to its pre-1887 status, but members of the reform party moved decisively to block this slide towards self-determination. The popular support the queen received and her plan to abrogate the Bayonet Constitution were certainly alarming, but the passage of the McKinley Act, which revoked Hawai'i's status as a tariff free trade partner with the United States, likely also motivated the party's response. On January 17, 1893, thirteen members of the Missionary Party who had organized themselves into a Committee of Safety ousted Queen Liliuokalani in a bloodless coup, with the support of the American Diplomat John L. Stevens. Stevens sent U.S. Marines into Honolulu to help keep the peace, and Liliuokalani surrendered power conditionally, demanding that the United States be given the authority to determine who was the rightful sovereign of Hawai'i.   

The Committee of Safety and other members of the Missionary Party quickly organized themselves into the provisional government of the Republic of Hawai'i. Their intention was to quickly have the republic annexed by the United States, but these plans were repeatedly derailed. Queen Liliuokalani petitioned the U.S. government to investigate the insurrection, and in response  James H. Blount was commissioned to look into the matter. The result of his exhaustive investigation found that Liliuokalani had been removed from power against the wishes of the majority of Hawaiians, and that Minister Stevens had involved American troops under false pretenses. A petition assembled by the native-led Women's Hawaiian Patriotic League in 1897 was sent to speak before Congress along with a delegation who asked that the United States help restore the monarchy and support Hawai'i's right to true self determination.  President Cleveland was sympathetic to the royalist arguments, and pushed for the United States to return control of Hawai'i back to Liliuokalani. The matter was sent to Congress for debate where it remained gridlocked for several years. Compounding these issues was the fact that the Republic of Hawai'i's president, Sanford Dole, refused to consider relinquishing power to anyone but the United States.   

Annexation and Statehood

Annexation could not be prevented forever. In 1898 William McKinley succeeded Cleveland as president, and brought a renewed executive focus on Hawai'i into the White House. As the Spanish American War began, President McKinley and others around the country saw Hawai'i as a necessary base from which the United States could project its power into the Pacific, specifically against Spanish colonial holdings in the Philippines. In August of 1898, President McKinley agreed to Sanford Dole's request for annexation, and Hawai'i was officially incorporated as a territory of the United States with the passage of the Newlands Resolution.    

Almost immediately after annexation, the people of Hawai'i began working towards attaining statehood. The first official petition for statehood was filed on August 15th, 1903 - just five years after annexation. This petition was denied, along with several other requests over the next five decades. During this time, Hawai'i's governors and judges were all federally appointed, and the territory's one congressional delegate was a non-voting representative. This lack of local self-determination helped wealthy white plantation owners remain in power. This planter class used their influence to import cheap labor to work on plantations as well as to keep export tariffs as low as possible. In Congress, many influential leaders worried about how the balance of power might be swayed if a new state were added to the union, since that state would add two senators and a number of representatives to their respective bodies. Because Hawai'i was tightly controlled by the Republican party, many democrats worked to block its admission to the union.  In addition to the political question, there were several steps Hawai'i had to go through before they could be granted full statehood. Finally, racial tensions kept many Americans from supporting full statehood for the island territory. Asian immigrants and their children made up a large portion of the Hawaiian population, and even before World War II anti-Asian sentiment led many to believe that if the population of Hawai'i were allowed to self-determine, they would betray American values and principles.   

Finally, in 1937, a congressional committee found that Hawai'i had satisfied all of the qualifications necessary to become a state. Before any real action could be taken, however, the attack on Pearl Harbor temporarily halted all talks. After the conclusion of World War II, efforts were redoubled by both Hawaiian and white citizens of the territory. Statehood meant an end to taxation without representation, popularly elected state officials, and the guaranteed protection of rights that other U.S. citizens enjoyed. Many mainland politicians also recognized the strategic value of having an American presence in the Pacific and began to agitate for statehood as a result. In 1959, Congress passed a bill admitting Hawai'i as the 50th state. The bill was signed into law by President Eisenhower, and a citizen's referendum held in June confirmed that the people living in the territory accepted. Almost 60 years after annexation, Hawai'i was finally one of the United States.   

Grades 6-8 Standards

NCSS.D2.His.2.6-8. Classify series of historical events and developments as examples of change and/or continuity. 

NCSS.D2.His.3.6-8. Use questions generated about individuals and groups to analyze why they, and the developments they shaped, are seen as historically significant. 

D2.His.6.6-8. Analyze how people’s perspectives influenced what information is available in the historical sources they created. 

D2.Civ.3.6-8. Examine the origins, purposes, and impact of constitutions, laws, treaties, and international agreements. 

D2.Civ.10.6-8. Explain the relevance of personal interests and perspectives, civic virtues, and democratic 
principles when people address issues and problems in government and civil society 

D2.Civ.14.6-8. Compare historical and contemporary means of changing societies, and promoting the common good 

Grades 9-12 Standards

D2.His.1.9-12. Evaluate how historical events and developments were shaped by unique circumstances of time and place as well as broader historical contexts. 

D2.His.8.9-12. Analyze how current interpretations of the past are limited by the extent to which available historical sources represent perspectives of people at the time. 

D2.His.14.9-12. Analyze multiple and complex causes and effects of events in the past. 

D2.Civ.3.9-12. Analyze the impact of constitutions, laws, treaties, and international agreements on the 
maintenance of national and international order. 

D2.Civ.10.9-12. Analyze the impact and the appropriate roles of personal interests and perspectives on the application of civic virtues, democratic principles, constitutional rights, and human rights. 

This lesson plan introduces students to the major events and themes that have defined the United States' relationship with Hawaii from the mid-1800's to today. Students will benefit from having a firm understanding of Hawaii's geographic location. This project on Google Earth illustrates the physical distance between Hawai'i and the mainland, but students should be encouraged to think about other ways this distance might affect relationships between Hawai'i and the United States. 

Encourage students to share what they think of when they hear the name Hawai'i today. Write answers down and save them for students to reflect on later after completing this lesson. Additionally, encourage students to develop some questions to investigate based on their current knowledge of Hawai'i.  

The following questions can be used to help start student inquiry: 

• Who has the right to decide who is in charge? 

• How do countries grow, shrink, and change over time? Why? 

• What does it mean to be a territory? 

• When did the United States stop expanding national borders? 

Read the News

This activity asks students to consider how information is shared across the frontier. Students will first read contemporary articles from the continental U.S. that covered the events in Hawaii that led up to annexation. Next, students will read accounts of the same events from newspapers in Hawai'i. Finally, they will have a chance to reflect on how and why the accounts of these stories were so different.

• American Accounts 

  • "The Hawaiian Rebellion" from The Daily Independent in Elko, Nevada covers the signing of the Bayonet Constitution in 1887. 

  • "Blount's Report" from The Rock Island Daily Argus in Rock Island, Illinois talks about the Blount Report and the American Response to the overthrow of the monarchy in 1893. 

  • "Annexation Opposed" from The Independent in Honolulu, Hawaii. This article is a reprint of a declaration from the Sacramento Federated Trade Council of California's official stance against Hawaiian annexation because it would increase Asian immigrant labor in the west coast in 1897. 

  • "The Illinois House..." from The Oasis in Nogales, Arizona. This short blurb talks about the patriotism inherent in supporting the Annexation of Hawai'i in 1898. 

Next, students should read articles from newspapers written in Hawai'i. It is important to remember that just because these articles were written in Hawai'i does not mean they reflect the views of Indigenous Hawaiians. Instead, remind students that these articles were written by people who were much closer to the events in the islands who had a much greater interest in what was going on and what the outcome of these events would be.  

• Hawaiian Accounts 

  • "Anti-Annexation" and "Forget Them Not" from The Independent in Honolulu, Hawaii. These two short articles both talk about the Native response to the overthrow of the Hawaiian Monarchy and the possibility of Annexation. 

  • "An Object Lesson for Hawaiians" and "Questions that Need Answering" from The Independent in Honolulu, Hawaii. The first of these articles compares the plan for annexation in Hawaii to the situation in the American South following the Civil War, and what it would mean for Native Hawaiians to be under a "white man's government." The second article raises concerns and questions, both from a Native and American stance, about annexation.  

After reading these accounts from Hawai'i, invite students to reflect on the differences they noticed. Did these articles help answer other questions they had, or provide any new information? How is their response different now than it was originally?  If needed, use the guiding questions below to help get students thinking as they reflect. Have the students note these changes down, along with what made the students change their perspectives. As a class, share what altered students' opinions. 

Guiding questions for this activity: 

• What do you notice in the reports from American newspapers?  

• Whose perspective is present?  

• Whose is missing? 

• How did people communicate during this time period? 

• How would these methods of communication have changed the way people understood a situation happening far away?  

Writing Resistance 

Before social media, how did large groups of people mobilize to make their will known? Protests, personal correspondence, and petitions were and still are effective tools to show that a crowd share feelings on an issue. After the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy, the people of Hawai'i used many different outlets to express their will.  

One of the first ways that people were able to communicate what they wanted was through individual communication. Many Hawaiians and their supporters began to quickly write letters to influential people including the President of the United States and members of the U.S. Congress to request their support and intervention. Queen Liliuokalani wrote many of these, including this open letter to the House of Representatives insisting on being restored to power.  

In other cases, people used petitions to show how popular their ideas were with the public. A petition is a document that declares a specific desire or demand that is signed by people who support that idea. Coordinating groups like the Women's Hawaiian Patriotic League wrote petitions like this one that drew a great deal of support. This petition was mentioned in one of the newspaper articles above, and was circulated for popular consideration. More than 21,000 Native Hawaiians signed before it was sent to President McKinley protesting against annexation. These signatures were significant because at this time there were only around 40,000 total Native Hawaiians.  

Why do you think that both the letter and petition above were valuable tools in resisting annexation? What might make them effective? Can you think of any parallels to these kinds of communications today?  

Think about an issue in your school or community that matters to you. Work in small groups to write your own petition, and then ask other students and teachers to sign it. Alternatively, think about someone who might be able to address this problem. Write them a letter explaining your views and requesting action. This activity can happen over the course of a few days or weeks.  

Statehood – What Changed? 

By the 1940's public opinion in Hawai'i had flipped in favor of statehood. At the time, this initiative was supported by both Indigenous and white Hawaiians. Have students explore these photos from the Hawai'i State Archives.  

• Statehood- Honor Roll Petition 2/54 #17  
• Statehood- Honor Roll Petition 2/54 #18 
• Statehood- Celebration #1 
• Statehood- Celebration #2 

These photos are part of two collections in the Hawaiian State Archives that document the ways that people pushed for statehood, as well as the festivities surrounding the official celebration of Hawai'i's becoming a state in March of 1959.  

Use the following questions to start a conversation: 

What do you see in these photos? What does this tell you about how people felt about Hawai'i being part of the United States at this time? How had those feelings changed since 1898? Why do you think that this change happened? Do you think everyone in Hawai'i changed their mind?  

Encourage students to talk about times when their feelings about an issue changed. What caused you to change your opinion?  

For Hawaiians, statehood was an opportunity to take a more active role in the way their islands were run. As a territory, Hawai'i's governors and judges were all appointed – Hawaiians could not vote on these offices. Additionally, territories like Hawai'i only had one representative in Congress who was not allowed to vote on any issues. Why would not having an active representative be significant?  

Today, Hawaiian statehood is again prompting a lot of conversation. For many Native Hawaiians, statehood was a step towards self-determination while not being the final destination. There are several influential movements that argue that Hawaii should be allowed to become a sovereign nation with a native monarchy again. At the same time, the United States has other territories that are missing the same rights that Hawaiians were arguing for back in the 1940's and 50's. Places like Washington, DC, Puerto Rico, Guam, and American Samoa are all territories that have, to varying degrees, begun to question why they are not also states.     

Letter to the Editor

After completing the lesson activities, invite students to reflect on how they feel about Hawai'i's story. What other questions do they have about these events? What feelings do they want to express to others?  For this assessment, students will write a "letter to the editor" to share their feelings in a public forum. If students prefer, they could also put together a short presentation similar to something that might be brought to a town hall meeting. This is a chance for students to enter this conversation, express their understanding of this topic and inquire further. Additionally, encourage students to think about modern issues that are similar to those that Hawai'i has faced. These might include extending statehood to other territories, arguments over Indigenous sovereignty, or other topics. For further discussion, students can share their presentations or letters with the class, providing an opportunity for other students to respond. 

Hawaiian Music

Hawaiian music plays a large role in modern efforts to preserve and promote Indigenous Hawaiian culture today. As an extension to this lesson plan, students can listen to the following Hawaiian songs as well as read their lyrics in both English and Hawaiian. Two of the following songs were written by Queen Liliuokalani during her imprisonment in Iolani Palace, and the other was written in 1906 in honor of the leaders who were seen as responsible for the formation of Hawai'i. Have students reflect on what these songs may be able to teach them about Hawaiian culture, especially during the period of annexation. Have them think about other songs in their own culture that may be a response to current events. 

Ku'u Pua I Paoakalani - Performed by George Helm with both English and Hawaiian Lyrics. The lyrics for this song were written while Liliuokalani was imprisoned in the Iolani Palace- Lyrics in both English and Hawaiian.

Ke Aloha O Ka Haku (the Queen's Prayer)- Also written while Liliuokalani was imprisoned. Lyrics in both English and Hawaiian.

Ka Naʻi Aupuni (The Conquerors of the Nation) - Composed by William Kahino. Lyrics in both English and Hawaiian.

Hawaii's Long Road To Statehood (National Archives) 

The Last Time Congress Created a New State (National Constitution Center) 

Hawaii Statehood, August 21, 1959 (National Archives) 

Hawaii Statehood: Chronicling America (University of Hawaii at Manoa Library)